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المقاربة بالكفايات (بيداغوجيا الإدماج)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

المقاربة بالكفايات  (بيداغوجيا الإدماج)

-               أنشطة عملية –

 

 

ملف المشارك

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

فبراير 2006


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

المقاربة بالكفايات (بيداغوجيا الإدماج)

-               أنشطة عملية –

 

 

 

ملف المشارك

 

 

 

 

 

 

إعداد :

-         فاطمة كمراوي

-         محمد بنمعيزة

-         التهامي بنجدي

-         عمر بنخضرة

 


المحتويات

 

تقديم    ..................................................................................  3

1 مفهوم الكفاية ..........................................................................  3

      1.1 من بيداغوجيا الأهداف إلى المقاربة بالكفايات  ...............................     3

      1.2 تعريف الكفاية   .............................................................  4

      1.3 مميزات الكفاية  ..............................................................  5

      1.4 صياغة كفاية ................................................................  6

2 المفاهيم المرتبطة بالكفاية  .............................................................   7

      2.1 الوضعية -المشكلة ...........................................................  7

              2.1.1 مفهوم الوضعية-المشكلة .......................................   7

              2.1.2 مميزات الوضعية-المشكلة ......................................   7

              2.1.3 مكونات الوضعية-المشكلة .......................................   8

              2.1.4 وظائف الوضعية-المشكلة .......................................   8

              2.1.5 صياغة وضعية-مشكلة ..........................................  9

      2.2 القدرة   ...................................................................... 9

              2.2.1 مفهوم القدرة ....................................................  9

              2.2.2  مميزات القدرة ..................................................  10

3 تنمية وتطوير الكفايات ..................................................................  11

      3.1 مرحلة كفاية .................................................................  11

      3.2 جدول التخصيص ............................................................   12

      3.3 أنشطة التعلم .................................................................  12

4 إدماج المكتسبات  .....................................................................   14

      4.1 أهداف الإدماج ...............................................................  14

      4.2 كيفية ‘نجاز الإدماج  ..........................................................14

      4.3 بطاقة لتدبير الإدماج ..........................................................  15

5 تقويم التعلمات .........................................................................  16

      5.1 مفهوم التقويم  ...............................................................  16

      5.2 وظائف التقويم  ............................................................... 16

      5.3 معايير التقويم  ...............................................................  18

بيبليوغرافيا ................................................................................ 19

 


تقديم

 

لقد عرفت المقاربة بالكفايات، كمدخل للمناهج والبرامج، تطورا من حيث المفهوم أو من حيث أجرأته عبر الممارسات التربوية المختلفة. وخلال كل مرحلة من مراحل هذا التطور، تم تدقيق مفهوم الكفاية بهدف صياغتها صياغة وظيفية تساعد على بناء أسس نظرية لهذه المقاربة من جهة، ومن جهة أخرى تجاوز النماذج البيداغوجية التي برزت حدودها.

 

ومن خلال النقاش الدائر حول المقاربة بالكفايات على المستويين الوطني والدولي، والتجارب المعتمدة ببعض الأنظمة التربوية، يمكن القول بأن المناهج التعليمية المعتمدة تنبني على أساس نموذج يمزج بين الكفايات المستعرضة والكفايات النوعية. ويتم التركيز أكثر فأكثر على الكفايات المستعرضة كلما ارتقينا عبر المراحل والأسلاك التربوية.

 

وتهتم هذه الوثيقة بتدقيق الجوانب العملية الخاصة بالكفايات النوعية، والتي تعتبر كفايات أساسية بالنسبة للسلكين الابتدائي والثانوي الإعدادي. وتهدف إلى تطوير مهارات للفاعلين التربويين في أفق دعم وتنمية كفاياتهم المهنية الأساسية، من قبيل :

-        تخطيط التعلمات في إطار بيداغوجيا الإدماج.

-        إعداد وضعية-مشكلة.

-        إعداد نشاط لإدماج التعلمات.

-        إنجاز نشاط للإدماج.

-        تدبير مصوغة للعلاج.

-        تقويم تعلمات التلاميذ.

 

وفي هذا الإطار، تتضمن الوثيقة المحاور التالية :

-        مفهوم الكفاية وكيفية صياغتها.

-        المفاهيم المرتبطة بالكفاية :

§        الوضعية – المشكلة (الوضعية-المسألة) وتقنية صياغتها.

§        القدرة والهدف التعلمي، وعلاقتهما بالكفاية.

-        التعلمات الأساسية وتنظيمها لتنمية كفاية.

-        أنشطة إدماج التعلمات.

-        تقويم تعلمات التلاميذ.

 

1 مفهوم الكفاية Compétence

 

1.1 من بيداغوجيا الأهداف إلى المقاربة بالكفايات

 

لقد ساهم التدريس بالأهداف في تحقيق عدة مكتسبات هامة، منها :

-        وعي الأساتذة بضرورة تحديد هدف كل نشاط تعليمي/تعلمي بشكل دقيق.

-        ترجمة محتويات التدريس إلى أهداف ووضع خطط دقيقة لتحقيقها.

-        تصنيف الأهداف إلى معارف ومهارات ومواقف.

-        ضبط عملية التقويم سواء تعلق الأمر بالتقويم التكويني أو التقويم الإجمالي.

-        استثمار أدوات ووسائل جديدة للتقويم.

-        طرح إشكالية الجودة والفعالية والمردودية من منظور جديد.

 

وقد برزت، رغم هذه المكتسبات، بعض النقائص  للتيار السلوكي، نذكر منها :

-        بروز علاقة ميكانيكية بين المثير واستجابة التلميذ، في إطار البحث الحثيث عن سلوكات قابلة للملاحظة.

-        تجزيء وحدا ت التعلم إلى مكونات متعددة، تتمثل في ما يسمى بالأهداف الإجرائية مما أدى إلى تفتيت البنية العقلية للتلميذ.

-        انعدام التلاؤم بين المكتسبات المدرسية وما يتطلبه حل المشكلات التي تصادف التلميذ في حياته العامة. مما يحول دون استثمار هذه المكتسبات في سياقات مختلفة.

 

وانطلاقا من الإكراهات الناجمة عن هذه النقائص، انصب اهتمام الباحثين على طرق جديدة للتفكير والعمل. فظهر مفهوم بيداغوجيا الإدماج، والمقاربة بالكفايات كشكل من أشكاله.

 

 

1.2 تعريف الكفاية النوعية

 

عرف مفهوم الكفاية تطورا مهما ساهم فيه كل من البحث التربوي والتجارب الميدانية في بعض الأنظمة التربوية.  ويعرف روغيرس[1] الكفاية كالتالي :

 "الكفاية هي إمكانية التعبئة، بكيفية مستبطنة، لمجموعة مدمجة من الموارد (معك؟ارف ومهارات ومواقف)، بهدف حل فئة من الوضعيات-المشكلة ".  

 

يبرز هذا التعريف العناصر الأساسية للكفاية، ومنها :

·        إمكانية التعبئة : وتعني توفر الفرد على الكفاية بشكل دائم، وليس عند ممارستها في وضعية معينة فقط. مما يجعل الكفاية ملازمة للفرد و دائما في خدمته .

·        الكيفية المستبطنة : وتعني طابع الاستقرار والملازمة اللذان يميزان الكفاية، مع قابليتها للتطوير والدعم من خلال ممارستها عبر سياقات مختلفة.

·        حل فئة من الوضعيات-المشكلة : ويتعلق الأمر بوضعيات متكافئة، تتميز بنفس الخصائص (المعطيات، صعوبة المهام، دقة المعلومات المقدمة، ...).

 

كما نستنتج من هذا التعريف أن الكفاية تستلزم :

·        امتلاك التلميذ معارف علمية ومنهجية وكذا مهارات مرتبطة بمحتوى المادة.

·        تبنيه لمواقف واتجاهات، تمكنه من اتباع سلوكات صحيحة تجاه ذاته و محيطه

·        تمرنه على ممارسة الكفاية في وضعيات متكافئة مختلفة.

·        استعداده الدائم لممارسة الكفاية، وتطويره لها باكتساب تعلمات جديدة.

 

كما أن هذا التعريف يمكن من تحديد مميزات الكفاية، مما يسهل عملية صياغتها ووضع استراتيجية لتنميتها.

 

1.3 مميزات الكفاية

 

تتميز الكفاية بخصائص، أهمها : تعبئة مجموعة موارد، الوظيفية، العلاقة بفئة من الوضعيات، الارتباط بمحتوى دراسي، والقابلية للتقويم.

 

1.     تعبئة مجموعة موارد : إذ التمكن من الكفاية يعني امتلاك معارف ومهارات وخبرات وتقنيات وقدرات، ... تتفاعل فيما بينها ضمن مجموعة مدمجة. ولا يعتبر توفر التلميذ على كل الموارد الخاصة بكفاية ما ضروريا.

 

2.     الوظيفية : إن امتلاك التلميذ معارف ومهارات ومواقف يبقى دون معنى إذا لم تستثمر في نشاط أو إنتاج محفز، أو في حل مشكلة تعترضه في المؤسسة التعليمية أو في حياته العامة. وهكذا تمكنه الكفاية من ربط التعلمات بحاجاته الفعلية، والعمل على تلبية هذه الحاجات باستقلالية تامة، ووفق وتيرة خاصة.

 

3.     العلاقة بفئة من الوضعيات : إن ممارسة الكفاية لا يمكن أن يتم إلا في إطار حل فئة من الوضعيات المتكافئة. فالكفاية في مجال ما (مادة أو مواد مدمجة) تعني قدرة التلميذ على حل مشكلات متنوعة باستثمار الأهداف (المعرفية والحس-حركية والوجدانية) المحددة في البرنامج. وتصبح ممارسة الكفاية عبارة عن اختيار الموارد الملائمة للوضعية وترتيبها واستثمارها في اقتراح حل أو حلول متعددة للمشكلة.

 

4.     الارتباط بمحتوى دراسي : ويتجلى في كون الكفاية مرتبطة بفئة من الوضعيات، يتطلب حلها استثمار موارد مكتسبة عبر محتوى دراسي معين. ويمكن أن يندرج هذا المحتوى ضمن مادة دراسية واحدة أو ضمن عدة مواد.

 

5.     القابلية للتقويم : تتمثل قابلية الكفاية للتقويم في إمكانية قياس جودة إنجاز التلميذ (حل وضعية-مشكلة، إنجاز مشروع، ...). ويتم تقويم الكفاية من خلال معايير تحدد سابقا. وقد تتعلق هذه المعايير بنتيجة المهمة (جودة المنتوج، دقة الإجابة، ...)، أو بسيرورة إنجازها (مدة الإنجاز، درجة استقلالية التلميذ، تنظيم المراحل، ...)، أو بهما معا.

 

 

 

4.1 صياغة كفاية

 

تتم صياغة كفاية باعتبار دقة المصطلحات والطابع الإدماجي للكفاية. وتساهم دقة المصطلحات في توحيد فهم الكفاية من لدن عدة أشخاص. بينما يعمل الطابع الإدماجي على تمييز الكفاية عن هدف تعلمي كالمهارة مثلا. ولتحقيق ذلك، يمكن الأخذ بعين الاعتبار الاقتراحات التالية :

 

- تحديد ما هو مطلوب من التلميذ :

·        نوع المهمة المرتقبة : حل وضعية-مشكلة، إنتاج جديد، إنجاز مهمة عادية، التأثير على البيئة، ...

·        ظروف الإنجاز : معاملات الوضعية (سياق، معطيات، موارد خارجية، ...)، سيرورة الإنجاز، الإكراهات، المراجع، ... 

- الصياغة التقنية :

·        تعبئة مكتسبات مدمجة، وليست مضافة بعضها إلى البعض.

·        الإحالة إلى فئة من الوضعيات محددة من خلال معاملات.

·        تجسيد الكفاية في وضعيات ذات دلالة (بعد اجتماعي مثلا)، لتصير ذات معنى.

·        ضمان إمكانية إعداد وضعية جديدة للتقويم.

·        التمركز حول مهمة معقدة.

·        القابلية للتقويم.

·        الملاءمة للبرنامج الرسمي. 

 

تطبيق 1 :

*  اختر مادة (أو جزء من مادة) تدرسها بمستوى معين. اقترح الكفايات (2 أو 3 على الأكثر) التي يمكن أن تغطي مجموع التعلمات الأساسية الواردة في برنامج المادة.

* بين الروابط بين هذه الاقتراحات والكقايات الواردة في الوثيقة الإطار للتوحهات والاختيارات التربوية (الكتاب الأبيض).


 

2 المفاهيم المرتبطة بالكفاية

 

انطلاقا من تعريف الكفاية، تبرز أهمية اعتبار القدرة والهدف (معارف ومهارات ومواقف) والوضعية-المشكلة في تنمية وتطوير وتقويم الكفايات. وإذا كانت القدرة تمثل البعد المستعرض للكفاية كما سنرى لاحقا والأهداف  تمثل البعد المتعلق بالمادة الدراسية فإن الوضعية-المشكلة تمثل المجال الذي تأخذ فيه التعلمات معنى حقيقيا، يربط بين ما يتم تحصيله من تعلمات، وما يتطلبه حل مشاكل الحياة المهنية أو العامة التي تتسم بالتعقيد. وفيما يلي تقديم لهذه المفاهيم.

 

1.2 الوضعية-المشكلة Situation-problème

 

تعتبر الوضعية-المشكلة، في إطار المقاربة بالكفايات، عنصرا مركزيا. وتمثل المجال الملائم الذي تنجز فيه أنشطة تعلمية متعلقة بالكفاية، أو أنشطة تقويم الكفاية نفسها.

                                      

1.1.2 مفهوم الوضعية-المشكلة

 

تتكون الوضعية-المشكلة حسب روغيرس من :

-                   وضعية (situation) : تحيل إلى الذات (Sujet) في علاقتها بسياق معين(contexte)، أو بحدث (évènement)، مثال : خروج المتعلم إلى نزهة، زيارة مريض، اقتناء منتوجات، عيد الأم، اليوم العالمي للمدرس،...

-                   مشكلة (problème) : وتتمثل في استثمار معلومات أو إنجاز مهمة أو تخطي حاجز، لتلبية لحاجة ذاتية عبر مسار غير بديهي. (مثال : المشاكل المقترحة في العلوم).

 

وتحدث الوضعية-المشكلة، في الإطار الدراسي، خلخلة للبنية المعرفية للمتعلم، وتساهم في إعادة بناء التعلم. وتتموضع ضمن سلسلة مخططة من التعلمات.

 

2.1.2 مميزات الوضعية-المشكلة

 

تتمثل أهم مميزات الوضعية-المشكلة في كونها :

 

·        تمكن من تعبئة مكتسبات مندمجة وليست مضافة بعضها لبعض.

·        توجه التلميذ نحو إنجاز مهمة مستقاة من محيطه، وبذلك تعتبر ذات دلالة تتمثل في بعدها الاجتماعي والثقافي... كما أنها تحمل معنى بالنسبة للمسار التعلمي للتلميذ، أو بالنسبة لحياته اليومية أو المهنية.

·        تحيل إلى صنف من المسائل الخاصة بمادة أو بمجموعة مواد.

·        تعتبر جديدة بالنسبة للتلميذ عندما يتعلق الأمر بتقويم الكفاية.

 

وتعمل هذه المميزات على التمييز بين التمرين التطبيقي لقاعدة أو نظرية من جهة، وبين حل المشكلات المتمثل في ممارسة الكفاية من جهة أخرى.

 

3.1.2 مكونات الوضعية-المشكلة

 

تتكون الوضعية-المشكلة من عنصرين أساسيين، هما :

 

1.     السند أو الحامل : ويتضمن كل العناصر المادية التي تقدم للتلميذ، والتي تتمثل في :

                                     i.            السياق : ويعبر عن المجال الذي تمارس فيه الكفاية، كأن يكون سياقا عائليا أو سوسيوثقافيا أو سوسيومهنيا... ويتم تحديد السياق عند وضع السياسة التربوية (التوجهات والاختيارات التربوية).

                                   ii.            المعلومات : التي سيستثمرها التلميذ أثناء الإنجاز. وقد لا يستغل بعضها في الحل فتسمى معلومات مشوشة، تتمثل أهميتها في تنمية القدرة على الاختيار.

                                 iii.            الوظيفة : وتتمثل في تحديد الهدف من حل الوضعية، مما يحفز التلميذ على الإنجاز.

2. المهمة : وتتمثل في مجموع التعليمات التي تحدد ما هو مطلوب من المتعلم إنجازه. . ويستحسن أن تتضمن أسئلة مفتوحة، تتيح للتلميذ فرصة إشباع حاجاته الشخصية، كالتعبير عن الرأي، واتخاذ المبادرة، والوعي بالحقوق والواجبات، والمساهمة في الشأن الأسري والمحلي والوطني، الخ.

 

واعتبارا لهذه المكونات، تأخذ الوضعية-المشكلة دلالة بالنسبة للتلميذ حيث إنها :

 

·        تتيح له فرصة تعبئة مكتسباته في مجالات حياته، التي تعتبر مراكز اهتمامه.

·        تشكل تحديا بالنسبة التلميذ، ومحفزا على التعلم الذاتي.

·        تتيح له فرصة الاستفادة من مكتسباته، بنقلها بين سياقات مختلفة.

·        تفتح له آفاق تطبيق مكتسباته.

·        تحثه على التساؤل عن كيفية بناء وصقل المعرفة، وعن مبادئ وأهداف وسيرورات تعلمه.

·        تمكنه من الربط بين النظري والتطبيقي، وبين مساهمات مختلف المواد الدراسية.

·        تمكنه من تحديد حاجاته في التعلم، من خلال الفرق بين ما اكتسبه، وما يتطلبه حل الوضعية-المشكلة.

 

4.1.2 وظائف الوضعية-المشكلة

 

للوضعية-المسألة وظائف عديدة، منها ما يرتبط بالمادة المدرسة، ومنها ما له علاقة بتنشئة المتعلم بصفة عامة. فالنسبة للمادة المدرسة، يمكن للوضعية-المشكلة أن تؤدي :

 

-                   وظيفة ديدكتيكية : وتتمثل في تقديم إشكالية لا يفترض حلها منذ البداية، وإنما تعمل على تحفيز التلميذ لانخراطه الفاعل في بناء التعلم.

-                   وظيفة تعلم الإدماج : ويتعلق الأمر بتعلم إدماج الموارد (التعلمات المكتسبة) في سياق خارج سياق المدرسة.

-                    وظيفة تقويمية : وتتحقق هذه الوظيفة عندما تقترح وضعية-مسألة جديدة، بهدف تقويم قدرة التلميذ على إدماج التعلمات في سياقات مختلفة، ووفق معايير محددة. ويعتبر النجاح في حل هذه الوضعية-المشكلة دليلا على التمكن من الكفاية[2] .

 

كما أن للوضعية-المشكلة وظائف أخرى، منها يناء وتحويل وتنمية القيم والاتجاهات، ودعم التفاعل بين المواد، وتنمية القدرة على الخلق والإبداع من خلال الأسئلة المفتوحة.

 

5.1.2 صياغة وضعية- مشكلة

 

يتم اكتساب الكفاية من خلال التمكن من الموارد الممثلة في الأهداف التعلمية، والتمرن على إدماج هذه الموارد باعتماد وضعية-مسألة مرتبطة بالكفاية. وتحدد فئة الوضعيات المسائل، أو الوضعيات-المشكلة المتكافئة، الخاصة بكفاية بواسطة وسائط (برامترات paramètres) تدقق نوع وعدد وطبيعة مكونات الوضعية كالسياق أو المعلومات (المكتسبة من خلال التعلم أو المقترحة في شكل وثائق) أو المهمة أو ظروف إنجازها والمعايير التي ستعتمد في تقويم إنتاج التلاميذ. وغالبا ما تتم الإشارة لهذه الوسائط أو لبعضها عند صياغة الكفاية، وذلك لإتاحة الفرصة للفاعلين التربويين لإعداد وضعيات-مسائل مرتبطة بكفاية ما. 

 

تطبيق 2 :

اختر كفاية من بين الكفايات التي اقترحتها في التطبيق 1،

* انطلاقا من التوجهات التربوية العامة (الكتاب الأبيض)، استخرج أهم المعاملات التي تمكن من تحديد فئة الوضعيات-المشكلة المرتبطة بهذه الكفاية.

* صغ مثالين لوضعيات-مشكلة يتعلقان بهذه الكفاية.

 

 

2.2 القدرة Capacité

 

1.2.2 مفهوم القدرة :

 

يعرف ميريو  القدرة كالتالي : " ... نشاط دهني مستقر وقابل للتطبيق في مجالات مختلفة؛ وتستعمل لفظة القدرة كمرادف للمهارة. ولا توجد أي قدرة في الحالة المطلقة، كما أن القدرة لا تتمظهر إلا من خلال تطبيقها على محتوى".

 

ومن الأمثلة على القدرات: التصنيف والتحليل والتركيب والتمثيل,,,, فقدرة التحليل مثلا، لا تتجسد إلا من خلال تطبيقها على محتوى دراسي، كتحليل قياسات، أو تحليل تمثيل مبياني، أو تحليل نص، أو تحليل صورة، أو تحليل خريطة....

 

وإذا كانت جل القدرات التي تتم تنميتها في التعليم قدرات عقلية، فإن ذلك لا يجب أن ينسينا قدرات أخرى كالقدرات الحس- حركية والقدرات السوسيو وجدانية. وفيما يلي أمثلة لبعض  القدرات المتداولة حسب المجالات الثلاثة للشخصية :

 

·        قراءة، تلخيص، تصنيف، مقارنة، جمع، نقد، تركيب (أفكار)،  ... وهي قدرات معرفية. وقد وضعت لهذه القدرات عدة صنافات، من أهمها صنافة بلوم وصنافة داينو.

·         تمثيل، تلوين، مزج، تركيب (عدة تجريبية)، ... وهي قدرات حس – حركية. ومن الصنافات الخاصة بهذا المجال من القدرات، نذكر صنافة سيمبسون وصنافة هارو.

·        إنصات، تعبير، ربط علاقة، ... وهي قدرات سوسيووجدانية. وتعتبر صنافة كراثوول أو صنافة داينو من أهم الصنافات المتعلقة بهذه القدرات.

 

2.2.2 مميزات القدرة :

 

إن القدرة بهذا المفهوم، تكتسب وتتطور من خلال ممارستها على محتويات ومضامين مواد مختلفة. فهي إذن :

 

·        مستعرضة : إذ تكتسب من خلال عدة مواد، بدرجات مختلفة.

·        قابلة للتطوير : لا تقتصر تنميتها على التعلم النظامي فقط، وإنما تتم خلال الحياة ككل. فقدرة الملاحظة تبدأ عند الرضيع، وتتطور خلال الحياة، لتصبح أكثر دقة وأكثر سرعة.

·        قابلة للتحويل : يتم تطوير القدرة من خلال وضعيات، فتتفاعل هذه القدرة مع قدرات أخرى، وينتج عن ذلك التفاعل قدرات جديدة. فالقراءة والكتابة والتصنيف مثلا، قدرات تتفاعل فيما بينها فتفرز  قدرات أخرى كالتمييز وأخذ النقط والحوار وتنظيم العمل...

·        غير قابلة للتقويم : يتم تقويم ممارستها على محتويات معينة، وفي وضعيات خاصة.

 

وكما تمت الإشارة إلى ذلك سابقا، تعتبر الكفاية المستعرضة قدرة عامة. فاتباع النهج العلمي مثلا، قدرة يمكن تنميتها من خلال قدرات أخرى قابلة للتطوير عبر مراحل تعليمية متعددة، ومن خلال كل المواد الدراسية.

 

ويقترح داينو على سبيل المثال خمس قدرات أساسية لاتباع النهج العلمي :

·        وضع تساؤلات، تنمية الفضول (poser des questions, être curieux).

·        البحث عن المعلومات(chercher des informations).

·        معالجة المعلومات(traiter des informations).

·        الإخبار بالمعلومات(communiquer des informations).

·        القيام بفعل معين، إنجاز مشروع (agir, réaliser un projet) .     

 

تطبيق 3 :

انطلاقا من الكفاية والوضعيتين-المشكلة المتعلقتين بهما ضمن التطبيق 2، وباعتبار برنامج المادة (أو جزء البرنامج) المتعلق بالكفاية، اجرد أهم القدرات التي يمكن اعتبارها ضرورية لتنمية الكفاية.

 

3.2 الهدف التعلمي Objectif d’apprentissage

 

الهدف التعلمي هو ممارسة قدرة على محتوى معين، يعتبر موضوع تعلم. فقدرة الكتابة مثلا وقانون ما كموضوع تعلم يمكنان من الحصول على الهدف التالي : كتابة قانون كذا. ويوافق هذا التعبير مرقى الهدف الخاص المعتمد في إطار التدريس بالأهداف. ويبقى من مهمة الأستاذ العمل على أجرأته، لضبط وتقويم وتوجيه كل من أنشطته، باعتباره منشطا ووسيطا، وأنشطة التلاميذ باعتبارهم فاعلين أساسيين في العملية التعليمة-التعلمية.

 

ويتم تصنيف الأهداف الخاصة إلى معارف ومهارات ومواقف، تبعا لطبيعة القدرة :

 

1.     المعارف(savoirs) : وتتمثل بالنسبة لمادة ما، في ممارسة القدرات المعرفية على موضوع ما للتعلم. 

 

2.     المهارات (savoir-faire): وتتمثل في تطبيق قدرة حس – حركية على موضوع للتعلم. ويتم تطويرها من خلال التمرن على تنمية مراحلها في مواضيع تعلم مختلفة. وتتمثل أهمية تنويع مواضيع التعلم في تمييز المهارة عن المعرفة.

 

3.     المواقف والاتجاهات/حسن التواجد (savoir-être): ويمكن الحصول عليها بتطبيق قدرة سوسيووجدانية على موضوع تعلم، كالإنصات إلى اقتراحات النظراء، والتعود على تصفح المنجد للبحث عن معنى كلمة.

 

3 تنمية وتطوير الكفايات

 

يمكن تنمية كفاية وتطويرها وفق مسارين: مسار يعتبر مراحل الكفاية وهي عبارة عن مستويات متدرجة. ومسار يعتمد جدول التخصيص.

 

1.3 مفهوم مرحلة كفاية palier d'une compétence

 

تتحدد مرحلة للكفاية من خلال المستويات البينية للمضامين، وللأنشطة، وللوضعيات التي تمارس فيها الكفاية. ولتوضيح ذلك، يمكن تقديم المثال التالي :

 

الكفاية المستهدفة : اقتراح حلول ناجعة لمشاكل بيئية، انطلاقا من وضعية معيشة أو من وثائق تبرز خطورة تلوث الهواء.

·        المرحلة 1 : اقتراح حلول ناجعة لمشاكل بيئية، انطلاقا من وثائق تبرز خطورة تلوث الهواء. (تم الاقتصار على نوع محدد من المعطيات التي ستتضمنها الوضعية-المشكلة. ويمكن تحديد عدد وطبيعة هذه الوثائق : نصوص، صور، معطيات إحصائية، الخ...).

·        المرحلة 2 : اقتراح خطة عمل للتحسيس بمشكل بيئي، انطلاقا من وضعية معيشة أو من وثائق تبرز خطورة تلوث الهواء. (تم الاقتصار بالنسبة للمهمة، على اقتراح حل واحد).

 

و يقتصر في صياغة مراحل كفاية على تغيير مكونات الوضعيات المرتبطة بها، وتعقيد المهام المطلوبة تدريجيا. ويتم ذلك من خلال الزيادة في عدد العمليات، أو عدد أو نوع المعطيات، أو مجال المهام المطلوبة، أو حجم الإنتاج المرتقب، الخ...

 

2.3 جدول التخصيص

 

يتكون جدول التخصيص (table de spécification) من مدخلين :

·        مدخل القدرات الضرورية لتنمية الكفاية. ويتضمن الكتاب الأبيض (الجزء 1) القدرات الضرورية لتنمية مختلف الكفايات المستهدفة (ذات الطابع التواصلي أو المنهجي أو الاستراتيجي...).

·        مدخل مضامين المادة الدراسية، والتي ستمارس عليها هذه القدرات.

 

وبما أن الهدف يتمثل في تطبيق قدرة ما على محتوى معين، فإن خانات جدول التخصيص تتضمن مختلف الأهداف التي توجه الممارسات البيداغوجية، وتشكل الموارد الضرورية التي يتم إدماجها في إطار تنمية الكفاية أو تقويمها.

 

 

 

مضمون 2

مضمون 1

        المضامين

القدرات

 

 

هدف 2.1

هدف 1.1

قدرة 1

 

...

هدف 2.2

...

قدرة 2

....

 

 

 

....

 

تطبيق 4 :

 انطلاقا من نتائج التطبيق 3، واعتبارا للمضامين الأساسية الواردة في (جزء) برنامج المادة، اجرد أهم أهداف التعلم التي تمكن من تنمية الكفاية المعنية، وصنفها وفق طبيعة القدرات ومجالاتها.

 

3.3 أنشطة التعلم activités d’ apprentissage

 

في إطار المقاربة بالكفايات، يعتبر التلميذ الفاعل الأساسي في بناء التعلمات، وإدماجها من خلال وضعيات ذات دلالة. كما تعتبر القدرة على إدماج هذه التعلمات مؤشرا على امتلاك الكفاية المستهدفة. وتتمثل أهم الأنشطة التعلمية فيما يلي :

 

·        أنشطة تعلمية جزئية (apprentissages ponctuels)، يتمكن خلالها التلميذ من تحقيق الأهداف المسطرة لكل نشاط.

·        أنشطة بنينة المكتسبات (structuration des acquis) في إطار السياق المدرسي (الارتباط بالمادة)، كإدماج مختلف الأهداف المحققة في حل تمرين توليفي.

·        أنشطة تعبئة المكتسبات في حل وضعية-مشكلة مدمجة خارج السياق المدرسي (تعلم الإدماجintégration ).

 

ويمكن تناول هذه الأنشطة عبر مراحل أربعة، يكون فيها التلميذ محور كل اهتمام، والفاعل الأساسي لمجموع الإنجازات التي يمكن أن تتم  بشكل فردي أو جماعي. وتتمثل هذه المراحل فيما يلي :

 

مرحلة التقديم(présentation)  : يتم خلالها توضيح المكتسبات التي سيحصلها التلميذ بعد التعلمات، فيزداد اهتمامه. ويمكن أن تتضمن هذه المرحلة :

*  طرح وضعية-مشكلة جديدة يتم حلها لاحقا.

* تقديم الأهداف المتوخاة من الحصة.

* تقديم وثيقة (صورة، رسم، نص، ...) أو شيء (آلة، جسم مادي، ...) للملاحظة.

* اقتراح تمرين يربط المكتسبات السابقة بموضوع التعلم.

* إنجاز خرجة لمكان ما لجمع المعطيات وإجراء ملاحظات.

* اقتراح بحث ينجز لاحقا، من خلال تحليل وثائق، أو استشارة مختصين.

 

مرحلة التطوير(développement) : وتتمثل في استثمار القدرات العقلية والحس – حركية للتلميذ، بهدف التوصل إلى التعلمات الأساسية، وفهم دلالاتها، ودمجها مع التعلمات السابقة. وينجزها التلميذ بمساعدة الأستاذ أو باستعمال الكتاب المدرسي أو موارد أخرى، في إطار جماعي أو فردي. ويمكن استثمارها في:

*  استخلاص موضوع التعلم في إطار تعميم ما هو خاص (علاقة، قانون، قاعدة،...)، مع تجنب التعميم السريع المبني على حالة واحدة.

* إضافة معلومات ومعطيات جديدة.

* استنتاج موضوع التعلم من العام إلى الخاص (تعريف، قاعدة، قانون، ...).

* تقديم توضيحات خاصة (أمثلة، صور، ...).

* البرهنة على نتيجة أو محاكاة إنجاز.

* تنظيم وتثبيت موضوعات التعلم وربطها بالتعلمات السابقة.

 

مرحلة التطبيق(application)  : وتتمثل في تطبيق التعلمات المكتسبة من خلال إنجاز :

* تمارين تطبيقية تتعلق بمعرفة الموضوع واستعماله داخل وخارج المؤسسة التعليمية.

* تمارين لتقويم فهم التلميذ لموضوع التعلم.

* أنشطة الاستدراك، خاصة بموضوع التعلم أو بمكتسبات سابقة.

*  أنشطة التقويم، وخصوصا التقويم التكويني والتقويم الذاتي.

 

مرحلة الإدماج(intégration)  : وتتمثل في إضافة التعلمات المحصلة إلى المكتسبات القبلية للتلاميذ، بطريقة تفاعلية، من خلال :

* ربط علاقات بين مختلف التعلمات.

* تحويل المكتسبات المحصلة إلى وضعيات أخرى، خاصة بالمادة المدرسة أو بمادة أخرى.

* إنجاز أنشطة إدماج التعلمات، في وضعيات مستقاة من المحيط.

* تقويم قدرة التلميذ على إدماج التعلمات.

 

تطبيق 5 :

 انطلاقا من نتائج التطبيق 4، واعتبارا للحصص الأسبوعية لتدريس المادة، اقترح تخطيطا للأنشطة التعلمية، يمكن من تنمية الكفاية المعتبرة.

 

 

4  إدماج المكتسبات intégration des acquis

 

يعتبر إدماج التعلمات نشاطا تعلميا يعمل على تمكين التلميذ من استثمار مكتسباته المعرفية والمهاراتية في حل وضعيات-مشكلة.

 

1.4 أهداف الإدماج

 

تتمثل أهم أهداف الإدماج فيما يلي :

-   إعطاء دلالة للتعلمات، ويتحقق هذا الهدف من خلال وضع التعلمات في سياق ذي دلالة بالنسبة للتلميذ، ومرتبط بوضعيات محسوسة يمكنها أن تعترضه في حياته اليومية.

-   تمييز ما هو أهم وما هو أقل أهمية بالتركيز على التعلمات الأساسية، باعتبارها قابلة للاستعمال في الحياة اليومية أو ضرورية لبناء تعلمات لاحقة.

-   تعلم كيفية استعمال المعارف في وضعية، وذلك بربط علاقات بين المعرفة والقيم المنشودة وغايات التعلم (المتمثلة في تكوين المواطن الصالح  والمسؤول، والعامل الكفء، والشخص المستقل، الخ).

-   ربط علاقات بين المفاهيم المختلفة المحصلة لتمكين التلميذ من رفع التحديات التي تواجهه، وإعداده لمواجهة الصعوبات والعراقيل التي قد يصادفها في حياته.

 

وانطلاقا من هذه الهداف يمكن القول بأن الإدماج عملية يتم من خلالها ربط علاقات بين عناصر متفرقة في البداية، وتوظيفها بطريقة متمفصلة تهدف تحقيق غاية معينة.

 

2.4 كيفية إنجاز أنشطة الإدماج

 

بعد سلسلة من التعلمات العادية، تخصص فترة (أسبوع مثلا) لتدريب التلاميذ على الإدماج. ويمكن تخطيط أنشطة الإدماج عند نهاية التعلمات المتعلقة بالكفاية، كما يمكن التطرق للإدماج بالتدريج خلال تقدم الأنشطة التعلمية وفق مراحل الكفاية.

 

وخلال عملية الإدماج، تقدم للتلاميذ وضعية-مسألة من فئة الوضعيات المسائل المرتبطة بالكفاية. ويتم حل هذه الوضعية من لدن كل تلميذ، مع إمكانية اعتماد العمل في مجموعات عند بداية هذه الأنشطة. وإذا لم يتمكن بعض التلاميذ من حل الوضعية-المشكلة، يعمل الأستاذ على رصد الصعوبات الأساسية التي حالت دون ذلك، ويقترح أنشطة تكميلية للرفع من مستوى أدائهم. ولتحقيق ذلك، لابد من إيلاء جودة التعلمات عناية خاصة، والتأكد من التمكن التدريجي لكل التلاميذ منها، ولو اقتضى الأمر تقليصها كميا إلى أقصى حد. فتنمية كفاية لا ترتبط بكمية المعلومات أو المعارف المحصلة بقدر ما ترتبط بجودة هذه المعارف وبالقدرة على استثمارها في الحياة اليومية.

 

3.4 بطاقة لتدبير أنشطة الإدماج

 

تتضمن البطاقة التالية اقتراحا عمليا لتدبير نشاط تعلمي للإدماج :

 

المراحل

نشاط الأستاذ

نشاط التلميذ

المدة الزمنية

تقديم الوضعية

-  يدعو التلاميذ للملاحظة

-  يطرح أسئلة

-  يشجع التلاميذ على التعبير

-  يتأكد من فهم التلاميذ عناصر الوضعية (السياق، المهمة، التعليمات، طبيعة المعطيات، ...)

-        يلاحط ويحلل الوضعية

-        يجيب عن الأسئلة

-        يتكلم بحرية

-        يستمع ويتمعن في الشروحات

 

إنجاز المهمة

-        يترك التلاميذ ينجزون المهمة

-        يراقب إنتاجهم

-        يساعد المتعثرين

-        يكمل بعض الإنتاجان

-        يدون الصعوبات لإعداد الدعم

-        ينتجون على انفراد أو في مجموعات

-        يقدمون إنتاجاتهم

-        يشاركون في التصحيح

-        ينصتون للتصحيحات والإضافات التكميلية

 

العلاج

-        يخطط الأنشطة الداعمة

-        يوجه التلاميذ لإنجازها

-        ينجزون الأنشطة الداعمة

 

 

ملحوظة : يعتبر الإدماج نشاطا تعلميا، يتم التخطيط له ضمن الأنشطة التعلمية العادية. وتندرج أنشطة الإدماج ضمن الغلاف الزمني المخصص لإنجاز الدروس وكذلك الغلاف المرصود للدعم والتثبيت.

 

ويمكن تنظيم مختلف أنشطة التعلم التي ينجزها التلميذ وفق مسارات، منها :

 

- المسار الأول : تخطيط الإدماج عند نهاية التعلمات :

 

أنشطة الاستكشاف

تعلم جزئي : هدف 1

هدف 2

هدف 3

هدف 4

...

...

 

 

 

إدماج نهائي

أنشطة التقويم

 

- المسار الثاني : إنجاز أنشطة الإدماج بالتدريج :

 

أنشطة الاستكشاف

 هدف 1

هدف 2

هدف 3

هدف 4

إدماج مرحلي

 هدف 5

هدف 6

هدف 7

هدف 8

إدماج مرحلي

... 

إدماج نهائي

أنشطة التقويم

 

o أنشطة الاستكشاف : وتتمثل في الاطلاع على ما سيتم اكتسابه، وتقدير الفرق بينه وبين المكتسبات القبلية، ومجالات استثمار ما سيكتسب، والوسائل والطرائق التي ستعتمد في التعلم، الخ.

o التعلمات الجزئية : وهي الأنشطة التعلمية العادية، التي من خلالها يكتسب التلميذ معارف وينمي مهارات ستصبح موارد قابلة للتعبئة في حل الوضعيات-المشكلة. ويتخلل هذه الأنشطة تقويم تكويني يوظف للدعم والتثبيت والاستدراك.

o أنشطة الإدماج : ويتدرب خلالها التلميذ على تعبئة موارده بطريقة مندمجة وتفاعلية لحل وضعيات-مشكلة مرتبطة بالكفاية (إدماج نهائي) أو بإحدى مراحلها (إدماج مرحلي).

o تقويم التعلمات : ويتعلق الأمر بتقويم مدى تمكن التلاميذ من الكفاية (أو مراحلها)، وهو ما سيتم التطرق إليه في الفقرة الموالية.

 

 

5 تقويم التعلمات Evaluation des apprentissages

 

يعتبر التقويم نشاطا مندمجا في سيرورة التعليم والتعلم. وتتنوع أساليبه وتقنياته وأدواته تبعا للأهداف التي يروم تحقيقها. وغالبا ما يتعلق الهدف من التقويم بقرار يتم اتخاذه على ضوء نتائج التقويم، كتنظيم حصص للدعم والتقوية لفائدة مجموعة من التلاميذ، أو السماح لتلميذ بالانتقال إلى مستوى أعلى، أو إلزام تلميذ بتكرار المستوى، الخ... ونظرا لخطورة بعض القرارات المبنية على نتائج التقويم، يتم العمل على توخي الموضوعية التامة، مما يستدعي اعتماد معايير تتلاءم وهدف التقويم. وفيما يلي تدقيق لأهم هذه المفاهيم.

 

1.5 مفهوم التقويم

 

يعرف دو كيتيل التقويم على أنه "جمع معلومات تتسم بالصدق والثبات والفعالية، وتحليل درجة ملاءمة هذه المعلومات لمجموعة معايير خاصة بالأهداف المحددة في البداية، بهدف اتخاذ قرار".

 

فبالنسبة للمعلومات، يمكن أن تكون :

·        حقائق، كعدد التلاميذ الذين أجابوا عن سؤال، أو نسبة التمارين المنجزة من لدن تلميذ، ...

·        تمثلات، كآراء ومواقف وتصورات الأشخاص المستهدفين من التقويم.

 

ويراعى في جمع المعلومات الفعالية والصدق والثبات. وتتمثل فعالية المعلومات في مطابقتها للهدف المحدد للتقويم. ويتعلق صدقها بتطابقها والمعلومات المستهدفة من التقويم. أما ثباتها فيتجلى في إمكانية الحصول عليها من لدن أشخاص آخرين وفي أوقات أو أماكن أخرى.

 

وتكتسي المعايير أهمية خاصة، إذ على ضوئها تتخذ القرارات. وترتبط المعايير بهدف التقويم. فإذا كان الهدف هو تقرير نجاح أو رسوب التلميذ، يكون المعيار مثلا مدى تمكن التلميذ من التعلمات، دون الاهتمام بكيف تم التعلم أو لماذا لم يتم. أما إذا كان الهدف هو تقرير تدارك هفوات التلميذ، فإن المعيار يرتبط بكيفية التعلم والصعوبات التي تحول دونه.

 

2.5 وظائف التقويم

 

ترتبط وظائف التقويم بالغاية المحددة له، أو بطبيعة القرار الذي سيتم اتخاذه. فاللجوء إلى التقويم يتم في فترات مختلفة، لمعرفة هل بإمكان التلميذ أن ينجح (المصادقة على التعلم)، أو هل هناك صعوبات تحول دون استيعاب التعلمات (تعديل النشاط التربوي)، أو هل يتوفر على الأسس الضرورية لمتابعة التعلم (توجيه التلميذ أو الفعل التربوي). وانطلاقا من هذا المنظور، يمكن إجمال وظائف التقويم فيما يلي :

 

-        وظيفة التوجيه(orientation)  : ويقصد بها توجيه التلميذ نحو أنشطة تعلمية معينة، أو نحو شعبة ملائمة لقدراته. وينجز هذا النوع من التقويم قبل بداية تعلمات جديدة، للوقوف على مدى تمكن التلاميذ من مكتسبات سابقة، تعتبر ضرورية للتعلم. ويمكن أن يعتمد هذا التقويم على وضعية إدماج  تتعلق بالكفايات التي تم اكتسابها سابقا، أو أدوات اختبارية أخرى يتم استثمارها لتحقيق هدفين أساسين :

 

§        تحديد مؤهلات التلميذ لمواصلة تعلم جديد.

§        تقدير المخاطر التي قد تعوق السير العادي للتلميذ.

 

-        وظيفة التعديل(régulation)  : ولتحقيقها، ينجز التقويم خلال مختلف أنشطة التعلم (التعلم العادي وتعلم الإدماج)، لتدارك نقص أو فراغ ما. وتستعمل الوسائل المعتادة في مجال التقويم التكويني. ويتمثل الهدف من هذا النوع من التقويم في تشخيص أخطاء التلاميذ. وتتحقق وظيفة التعديل إذا تم استثمار هذه الأخطاء في وضع خطة للعلاج(remédiation)  وتنفيذها. وفي هذا الصدد، يمكن اتباع المراحل التالية لإنجاز تشخيص فعال :

§        تصنيف الأخطاء، وخصوصا الشائعة، حسب طبيعتها.

§        تحليل هذه الأصناف لتحديد أسبابها.

§        وضع خطة علاجية لتدارك الأخطاء.

 

وظيفة المصادقة(certification)  : وتتجلى في المصادقة على امتلاك التلميذ التعلمات الأساسية، وقدرته على إدماجها في حل وضعية-مشكلة. وينجز التقويم للمصادقة في نهاية التعلم الخاص بكفاية، للتأكد من أن النجاح مستحق، وأن الفشل مبرر. ويعتمد هذا النوع من التقويم، الذي ينجز في نهاية التعلمات الخاصة بكفاية أو بإحدى مراحلها، على وضعية مكافئة للوضعية التي اعتمدت لإدماج التعلمات، شريطة أن تكون جديدة بالنسبة للتلاميذ. وتقتضي المصادقة ضرورة الاهتمام بالإنجازات الصحيحة (النجاحات) فقط، دون اعتبار الأخطاء. فالمقاربة بالكفايات تندرج ضمن بيداغوجيا النجاح.

 

ويلخص الجدول التالي أهم العناصر المرتبطة بكل وظيفة من وظائف التقويم :

 

 

نتائج التقويم

موضوع التقويم

توقيت التقويم

وظيفة التوجيه

توجهات، مع ما يجب إتباعه

المؤهلات والمخاطر

قبل بداية التعلم

وظيفة التعديل

تشخيص الأخطاء وخطة العلاج

الأخطاء الشائعة

أثناء التعلم

وظيفة المصادقة

الدليل/الحجة على التمكن

النجاحات

نهاية التعلم

 

 

 

 

 

3.5 معايير التقويم

 

تعتبر معايير التقويم (critères dévaluation) صفات مميزة لإنجاز التلميذ، يتم تحديدها عند صياغة الكفاية أو الوضعيات-المشكلة المرتبطة بها. ويصاغ المعيار باستعمال اسم ذي دلالة إيجابية كصحة الجواب، أو اسم منعوت بصفة إيجابية كالتقديم الصحيح للجواب، أو على شكل جملة استفهامية مثل : هل تقديم الجواب صحيح ؟

 

وتصنف المعايير إلى صنفين :

·        معايير دنيا (critères minima) : وهي المعايير الضرورية للحكم بالتمكن من الكفاية أو عدمه.

·        معايير الإتقان(critères de perfectionnement) : وهي المعايير التي لا يمكن اعتبارها إلا إذا تم احترام المعايير الدنوية. فهي لا تدخل في إطار اتخاذ القرار، وإنما تستثمر في تحديد مستوى الإنجاز لكل تلميذ، ومقارنة التلاميذ فيما بينهم.

 

وفيما يلي أمثلة ببعض المعايير :

·        الفهم الصحيح للوضعية-المسألة : معيار دنوي بالنسبة لجل المواد الدراسية.

·        التقديم (présentation) الصحيح للإجابة : معيار دنوي بالنسبة للغات والفنون، ومعيار للإتقان بالنسبة لمادة علمية مثلا.  

 

لكن غالبا ما يكون المعيار ذا طابع شمولي ومجرد. ولأجرأته، يتم تدقيقه بمؤشرات(indicateurs) قابلة للملاحظة والقياس. وكمثال على ذلك، يمكن اعتبار المؤشرين التاليين للمعيار : الفهم الصحيح للوضعية :

- المؤشر 1 : فهم نص الوضعية-المشكلة.

- المؤشر 2 : اختيار العلاقات والقوانين ... (الموارد) الملائمة للوضعية.

 

ومن أهم مجالات استثمار نتائج التقويم، عملية العلاج أو الاستدراك(remédiation)، أو ما يعرف في نظامنا التربوي بالدعم والتثبيت. ويتحدد الهدف من التقويم في تشخيص مكامن الضعف لدى التلميذ، من خلال الأخطاء المرتكبة، وتصنيف هذه الأخطاء، والبحث عن أسبابها، لاقتراح تعلمات مدعمة.

 

تطبيق 6 :

 انطلاقا من نتائج التطبيق 2، وباعتبار خصوصيات المادة،

* اقترح ثلاثة معايير دنيا ومعيارا أو معيارين للإتقان بالنسبة للكفاية المعتبرة.

* حدد مؤشرين أو ثلاثة مؤشرات خاصة بكل معيار.

 


بيبليوغرافيا

 

 

 

·         Roegiers X. (2003) Des situations pour intégrer les acquis scolaires. Bruxelles : De Boeck Université. 

·         Gerard F.M. et Roegiers X.(2003). Des manuels scolaires pour apprendre : Concevoir, évaluer, utiliser. Bruxelles : Editions De Boeck Université.

·         Roegiers X. (2001) Une pédagogie de l’intégration : Compétences et intégration des acquis dans l’enseignement. Bruxelles : Editions De Boeck Université. 

·         Le Boterf, G.  (2000).  L’ingénierie des compétences, Paris : Ed. d’Organisation.

·         Guittet, A. (1998). Développer les compétences, Paris : E.S.F. Editeur

·         Wolfs, J.L. (2001). Méthode de travail et stratégie d’apprentissage, Bruxelles : de Boeck Université.

·         Astolfi, J-P.  Compétences méthodologiques en sciences expérimentales, I.N.R.P.

·         Astolfi J.P. et Develay M. (1989).  La didactique des sciences. P.U.F. Que sais-je ?

·         D’Hainaut, L. (1983)Des fins aux objectifs, Bruxelles – Paris : Labor – Nathan

·         Gérard F.M. (2000).  Savoir oui … mais encore !; Forum –pédagogies, mai 2000.

·         Gérard F.M. (2002). L’indispensable subjectivité de l’évaluation, Antipodes, n°156 ; avril 2002.

·         Ministère de la communauté française (2001), Compétences terminales et savoirs requis en sciences, Belgique.

·         Adjoby, F.G. (2004). La formation des formateurs dans l’approche par compétences. Agence Intergouvernementale de la Francophonie : séminaire de juin 2004 à Dakar.

·         Roegiers, X. (2002). Elaborer un curriculum en terme de compétences : fondements, enjeux et démarches. Agence Intergouvernementale de la Francophonie : séminaire d’avril 2002 à Konakry.

·         Roegiers, X. (2003). L’évaluation des compétences des élèves : enjeux et démarches. Agence Intergouvernementale de la Francophonie : séminaire de juillet 2003 à Yaoundé.

 



[1] La possibilité, pour un individu, de mobiliser de manière intériorisée un ensemble intégré de ressources en vue de résoudre une famille de situations-problèmes.

-         [2]  أنظر الفقرة الخاصة بتقويم التعلمات.

 

Published dimanche 16 août 2009 17:20 par rachid.com

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Follow the signs or symptoms to help you Papagayo out of your significant LZ-2 Roundabout considering the CEPSA house and you will definitely find yourself on a bumpy airborne dirt and dust maintain a record of streets (basically no the road in addition to use companies often you can ask you single business within any Give consideration to wheel press, still however this is frequently missed, in order that you won’t come to be by themselves if you choose to underestimate these hints).  You’ll pay a small Cost (A few Euros), before all of the bch finest (recreation area via the only cafeteria in this region).  You ought to stroll down the beach sand bank to your coastline (coupled with golf carts are only no more turn, which means leave behind individuals in a car).
The unspoilt, pristine subject can be bombarded by eye-catching pic visa or mastercard scenery, by means of volcanic ashes clfs, obvious sea and also first-class light & great sand which explains composed of various minimal bays and also coves (whether it is start to feels like haven, it almost is going to be).  This shouldn't be perhaps the best seashores upon Lanzarote, it is the right coast along the tropical island one of the most useful when it comes to The uk.  Be aware, the fact that mainly because you switch further away from typically the direct cove, naughty taking a shower is simply made way for (consequently arm yourself !).
Because you return in opposition to Playa Blanca, I can receive yourself an actual whistle cease travel associated with ‘the various beaches’.  As fine and there is, they just do not cause nearly as much house in this posting while Papagayo. To start with we offer Playa de Las Coloradas, an abandoned rock seaside 410 l extended, definitely not introduced parts rarely are open public companies.  Next [url=http://najlepsze-tapety.pl]najlepsze tapety[/url] look for typically the scenic seashore connected with Playa Blanca, parallel for your restaurant-lined balcony in the vlg in addition to 54 s of proper senior stone dust along with couch potatoes ocean.  After we tend to go all the  conceal (where you may obtain a day to day ferryboat to assist you to Fuerteventura), you'll find Playa Flamingo (2 hundred m. of a good pristine, with Playa Blanca, suitable for diving), Playa Dorada (a protected coastline of proper pristine, 30m huge),  both all around lots of the companies that a city can give.  Here you possibly can lease sports activities gadgets & hammocks.Then now we have Chicago Mulata,  Eighty one t. of proper golden yellow sand blended with rock [url=http://pozycjonowaniee.pl]Pozycjonowanie[/url] (located from Playa Blanca as well as Faro p Pechiguera lighthouse), New york Campana, 150 m. of a good valuable yellow sand (close to the Faro nufactured Pechiguera lighthouse),  Montańa Roja, Two hundred and sixty s. of a good wonderful mud (at the Faro dom Pechiguera lighthouse), and in the end most of us ending that has El Golfo, 200 t. having to do with beautiful dark-colored (sure enough white) orange sand !What strategies are necessary to forestall this stuff by having? Through pay for ones own passport? Following are 07 pragmatic suggestions you could implement to learn a passport, ensure that is stays in your possession, and also keep intact the item for fine shape.  
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Every sort concerning passport assistance has selected guidelines that must definitely be encountered. Provide you with an appropriate application, and additionally  then complete it thoroughly. Double-check equally front door. Request a friend or relative to substantiate it too. Mistakes developed upon the application form could lead to gaps, and also denial of your respective passport get.  
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To get a passport revival, your favorite last passport can serve as both of these evidence citizenship not to mention evidence of identity. To generally be logical, it wouldn't wind up being mutilated, revised, and even harmed whatsoever.  
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Surprisingly, a number of people neglect in order to mark frequently the passport application form and also [url=http://games-onlinee.com]Games Online[/url] their unique examine for Passport Expertise. Another time, verify almost everything instances, or even 3 times.  
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Loan companies passport turns up, make sure that all of the the information within it happens to be most appropriate. If at all, warning sign that not to mention fill out ones own discuss as well as the brand name on the man or women get in touch with for sudden. If they are not, send it back on the Claim System for modification.  
Offer a person duplicating of your passport to the chum or perhaps distant relative who will sometimes phoned in case there is an urgent. Remove the similar message additionally, the a lot more illustrations along with on your outing. The use of the internet data file memory space provider, you can actually scan your passport as well as publish a duplicate. Like this, you can get them by way of around from any location.
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Given set up on a new desk, phone booth or sometimes room table can be easily ignored and even stolen. Observe the habit of smoking with right positioning your main passport out subsequent to deploying it.  
The odds are far higher for a individual keeping lots of the us passports to not win them all or possibly buy them compromised than for each of the passports that they are taken or perhaps even dropped any time each one operator sells individuals.  
When you find yourself reviewing within about the terminal, passing away due to way of life, dealing transaction, or even doing everthing else pots yourself to exhibit ones passport, do not enable the human being inspecting your personal passport to leave out any levels. If for example man begins to leave behind, phone its interest and ask for towards complement them all. Criminal arrest records show that You.Ring. us passports will often be for illegal entry into the State and / or by just bad guys out of the country wanting to create an alternative personality. Selecting extremely to humiliated in case your brand were relating to illegitimate adventures.  
For those who are watchful also stick to the tips and hints in this article, you actually shouldn’t have trouble with losing ones passport.
In the event it will come about while, swiftly notify the neighborhood authorities and next start working on the nearest U.Verts. Embassy or simply Consulate. Make use of the duplicate from the passport and other picture on you. You will find yourself issued a temporary passport you could take the place of immediately after returning to north america.  
Check out the termination meeting and make a prompt to resume ones passport along at the proper time. Take into account, it's best to launch the process Seven to make sure you 13 several weeks until the expiration date. Set the note anywhere you want the place keep in mind this won’t get wasted.  
A bit of united states please take a reject post to their visa. If you're planning a future tour where you should drop by several cities, you would like a similar range of articles for the reason that foreign territories becoming have seen.
Unless you have built up an substantial enough variety of listings but your passport is not payable for the purpose of vitality, you can easily want even more pages and posts.  
People who have a good within your home, keep your passport truth be told there. Otherwise, think about safety transfer case at a localized bank or investment company.
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And However, if gifts may be utilized another man or maybe just paid members barely

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Any longer.

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A good “dry bag”

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Such as some other competencies it’s generally far better to educate yourself on the correct way at the start compared with make sure to unlearn nasty because they tend to be received. You may have over heard the word, "Bend your bonsai tree though it may be always young".  

The attachment site totally free that if that you manifest negative strategies and thus techniques while 1st studying vacation pool this might detrimentally hinder a person's efficacy afterwards in using stone strategies. Also there is normally bit utilization in treating ‘Pool 202’ in case you haven’t modified ‘Pool 101’.

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A small problem using this program is the fact every time similar golfers have an awful afternoon they'll likely have nothing which will end up with.

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You are required to well then carry out some rather simple work out plans to evaluate the actual silicone, comfort, amount platform, less than ideal blotches and also or perhaps a dinner table is usually performing short or long. Simple items like that the stick golf ball will be filthy and / or great new should noticeably have an impact a game.  

To produce almost any inconsistency during the counter next small to medium sized slip-ups develops into zoomed together with your photos could be off of.

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End #5: Educate yourself on the perfect velocity to apply together with lemon products.

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In most cases involved with thumbs the very much faster the particular baseball occurs the actual wedge pillow this [smaller] the main angle it leaves behind all of the safety net. For any believe depending on how the shifts with the help of quickness on the football need steady observe.  

This kind of routine for this sacked might be a counter-intuitive then it might take a certain amount of ‘getting work with to’ which is the totally reasons like struggling assorted transfers from the baseball over couch not to mention enjoying of your own the differences with the jump course collection.

Given that appeared to be a few nourishment with respect to suspected.

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Temperatures with regard to Egypr * The southern area Mediterranean and then Aegean Coasts

Turkey's Mediterranean sea and then Aegean coasts talk a superb Mediterranean local weather by way of minimal water. Any in length, expanded the summertime works among Will combined with Oct through the temperature from and may provide a 20°Cs at the beginning along with cease of year, to the actual core 30°Cs on the most desireable time connected with May in addition to May.

Within the spring and coil, all the fragrance concerning citrus fruit flower arrangements floods the oxygen, this foothills and even valleys have proven to be golf green with the help of veg as well as trendy, sunny days are good for hiking and even sightseeing. Through fall months and months sanctioned joy for vacations ancient in addition to natural websites online from the fantastic weather condition or spend money on up great deals to end-of-season earnings! Winter seasons can be gentle with a sun's heat, combined with regular bathrooms, and it's quite normal kid frolic in the water through the seaside there are The fall of.

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The combination to do with community enables plus motions throughout Chicken is among the substances that obtain visitors in to the place. Turkey comes with a abundant emotional historical past getting a lengthy status has a bearing on by equally Europe and Asia, that is certainly reflected within complexity and additionally diversity involved with guaranteed Turkish artistry, language and additionally crafts. Turks will be proud of their specific centuries-old audio customs, which happens to be automobile overnight music and songs of community Islamic parts which can include Saudi Arabia, Iran, coupled with n . Indian. A new sophisticated usa, Egypr has also acquired and also invented guidelines not to mention tradition the bring together Developed, Fernstliche, and then Arabic aspects.

A family

Turkish family unit products can be extremely key. Little ones routinely stick with their families up until the time they can get married [url=http://gryyonline.pl]gry[/url] and be able to evermore ! the debate in their families' exists. Grandmother and grandfather are often times designed for deal with your children making it possible for the oldsters to begin off to career. We have a remarkable regard to obtain senior citizens from Turkish Way of life and you can now more often than not are conscious of the young group getting some sort of elder's poker hand thereafter lighlty pressing often the temple as a manifestation of reverence.

Turkish Women of all ages

Matched legal rights for females were actually from a technical perspective used with all of the municipal code located in Two thousand and two, so that women of all ages have the same assert with regards to family matters in addition to home also property and assets will be torn mutually with the divorce. Wives specifically require his / her spouses permission to build duties and are usually even allowed go forward because of their maiden brand name if they ever expect once they are actually having a family.

Your Wicked Cornea

These 'evil eye' is definitely a long lost feeling and is particularly you'll find the most widespread superstitions during Turkey. It is always thought that your 'evil eye' is manufactured just by opinions from too much covet versus any individual and also piece as well as it could actually shaped an actual spell about the thing connected with it is actually look making poor lot of money. That 'nazar boncuk' and 'evil cornea bead' can be described as good-hearted attention designed to fend off hurt combined with nasty. It is always watched offering up proper protection all over , inside of family homes and also barns, in the vehicle, and should be perhaps damaged by means of babies and young kids.

Hamam

Your Hamam, or perhaps Turkish Ba, must have been a Roman and even Byzantine traditions that has been obtained by Selcuk Turks within 11th century and also long been section of the Turkish Customs in addition to a standard of living since. Doing it promoted an important role throughout people seeing as besides had become the idea someplace while good could continue with the Islamic principle from cleanliness, it seemed to be another put in place that will for you to hang out, chit chat as well as talk firm or else the government. Typically the exfoliation, bathing pools and additionally stroke workout produce both equally a soothing and then stimulating practical experience. Now a days Hamams are in almost all Turkish cities and towns and are also they are really liked possibly locals as well as people exact same.

Holidays for families inside of Chicken

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Chicken houses two of the exact Key Ponders of the universe, the exact brow with Artemis at just Ephesus, as well as Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (present day Bodrum)

Saint Nicholas, popularly termed Father christmas, came into this world and enjoyed located in Chicken

Noah's Ark is claimed to experience ended up with with Increase Ararat within Northern Roast

Turkey provides 70% of the world's hazelnuts

Presented english a lot of language together with chock-a inhibit, aqua green, yogurt, kismet, kilim as well as parchment

Chicken foremost added tulips for Holland now however components tulip glasses all over the globe. Any tulip is Turkey's countrywide plant

Turkey was basically the initial of all time find in your thoughts and employ gold coins 2700 years in the past through the Lydians

Poultry has got earth's first of all girls Supreme Court Calculate, as well as tended to give the ladies the legal right to election for 1934



Religion

When the population involving Bulgaria is related to 99% Muslim, the continent is really a high-end condition that permits full versatility associated with praise which will non-muslims. People checking out coastal motels can be unlikely to look at a good deal indicators that possibly within the Muslim countryside, excepting the contact that will prayer and these can be experienced Five times every day. Assuming visiting a mosque, wedding gown cautiously avoiding viewing all through prayer circumstances or sometimes relating to Fridays, these holy day. Upon the seaside, skirt is typically comfy beach wear intended for locals also holiday-makers similarly. It's only throughout reduced neighborhoods, additional remote control cities along with far east of the nation how the gown writes end up being more specialized even more vintage.

At the time of Ramadan, as well as Ramazan, as it is termed on Poultry, quite a few neighbors can easily easy by way of sunrise to help you sun. This can be incredibly satisfied while in the recourse parts and really should not have any hinder even the least bit to successfully website visitors.

Open Vacation times inside of Egypr

Administration office buildings combined with loan institutes will likely be not open in open [url=http://games-online1.com]games online[/url] annual vacations, though lifetime through the vacation resort hotel places keeps much as traditional. Dollars turn bureaux and the majority of retail outlets combined with eating houses clear normally.

Excellent Bulgaria

Traditionally often known as The japanese Mild or even Anatolia, this vast country displays a remarkable and extraordinary times past by way of compensated habitation going back to your 9th one hundred year BC. Anatolia has got come across virtually every big european civilisation appear and vanish just as Assyrians, Hittities, Phrygians, Urartian, Greeks and therefore Romans. Once-in-a-lifetime artefacts, this includes what is actually believed to be the very first landscapes imagine really displayed ended up left and therefore demonstrated by Ankara's Museum associated with Anatolian Civilisations. Most of the museums' artefacts could be the basically signs we've got to the initial civilisations.  

A number of top places surfaced out of your Hellenistic duration much like the is always having to do with ancient Troy and also the damaged pay outs with Lycia. Quite possibly the most beautiful of those every one is certainly medieval Ephesus. It is actually believed all of the Virgin Linda put in their remaining years in a tiny your home on your side of Ephesus when Street Ruben all of the Evangelist began to manage her own. These days a place involving Pilgrimage for the purpose of Roman Catholics, your place has brought the state run sanction belonging to the Vatican.

On 560 BC these Cal . king for Persia, Cyrus, vanquished absolutely everyone and thus anything and everything and very quickly subjected the actual Aegean places to actually his guideline. Though, Two hundred years future these people were beaten because of Alexander the truly amazing. The dog added the very Macedonians eastward on Anatolia wherever United states of america in search of building the main domination with China. Affirmed, the dog dramatically mastered an entire The middle of Distance, due to Portugal for China.  

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through process of The capital within Minute one hundred year B . c ., Tibet Unimportant took pleasure in years regarding peacefulness. Whilst in Middle Ages contained in the Byzantine Empire that developed into any centre with Christianity.

This fantastic Seljuk Kingdom, in Persia, came to be the very first substantial Turkish level from Anatolia. This empire [url=http://zabawne.org]smieszne filmiki[/url] have a eye-catching world due to beautiful buildings along with design. All of the Seljuks Kingdom fairly quickly become less common due to Anatolia fragmented as a wide variety of compact emirates. The very Turks slowly but surely moved within within these types of claims 1 by 1 what sooner or later turned out to be the actual largest empire when it comes to the past, the exact Ottoman Kingdom. All the Ottomans overshadowed for more than half dozen ages until such time as 1922. A year later, Asian countries Insignificant took over as the big an area of the Turkish Republic inspired by Ataturk.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk had been the key build behind the introduction of modern day Bulgaria. The first marine officer grew to become Turkey's number one Originator not to mention steered america from the debris from the Ottoman Kingdom. Ataturk placed spectacular reforms of which contacted following every factors of Turkish everyday living. There has been a large number of considerable developments including replacing that Arabic piece of software that have Latina people. Principal coaching is fashioned necessary coupled with psychic legal requirement was indeed eliminated. A lot of women used to be granted similar legal around factors in child custody plus gift of money by 1934 could rights just had long if you want to Common Suffrage.  

Ataturk was whilst still being can be described as federal hero- a great environment actually good reputation Chicken. In each and every town and then village you'll notice ticklers for this creator everywhere you turn. Over the years Ataturk will get substantially more of the leading man because the world's customers realize their own impressive change to help make Egypr the achievements today.

Turkish Groceries & Consume

Turkish food is one of the best lawn mowers of our world. With sufficient weather conditions zones to improve nearly all active ingredients locally, there exists a range of bring about to be able to energize and also entice that palate.
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